One of the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer’s most famous poems is Troilus and Criseyde, a retelling of the classic love tragedy poem. It is set amid the background of the Trojan War, but in a 14^th century environment. In it, the Trojan prince Troilus falls in love with the Trojan noblewoman Criseyde. Criseyde is a mature, independent, and rational woman trying to survive. But she is won over by Troilus’ honor and devotion to her. Her relationship with Troilus is a strong one with no apparent blemishes, but politics along with deceit ruin it. She has often been blamed for this, but Chaucer defends her throughout the poem and frees her from blame.

Criseyde starts off the poem as a mature and independent woman who is thinking ahead to survive. When her father Calchas leaves Troy, she fears for her life, and she “niste what was best to rede, / For bothe a wodwe was she, and alone / Of any friend to whom she dorste mone” (TC 1.96-98)  She has just lost her husband, and because she is related to Calchas, she could be suspected of being part of his treason. Her deliberating and thinking personality is introduced, as she does not know what to do yet. Without a spouse she feels alone. This shows that she is a survivor. But she has something going for her:

So angelic was her natif beauty,

That like a thing immortal seemes she

            As Doth an hevennish parfit creature

That doun were sent in scorning of nature.

(TC 1.102-105)

This description doesn’t just give away her beauty, but it also shows her innocence, how she could never have conspired with her father Calchas in betraying the Greeks. She is a moral person, and her beauty goes hand in hand with this. It will also be of use to her when she begs Hector for mercy, when “on knees she fil biforn Ector adoun: / With piteous vois and tenderly weeping, / His mercy bad, hirselven excusing” (TC 1.110-112). She justifies herself before him, and successfully pleads her case: since Hector himself is also piteous, and sees her honesty, he takes her under his protection. Ironically, Troilus will later ask her for mercy.

At the temple, she tries to keep a low profile, standing alone and apart from others. Her simple clothing shows her austerity, and despite being under shame’s dread, she has a confident look and manner because she is a strong and independent woman. Troilus notes her “honor, estat and womanly nobleness” (TC 1.287). Troilus sees who she really is through her guise, as Troilus, like Criseyde, is earnest and honest, which is a major reason why their relationship works out. But right now, Criseyde doesn’t take kindly to Troilus’ staring, as her attitude “somedel deignous was, for she let falle / Hir look a lite aside in swich manere / Ascances, ‘What, may I nat stonden here?’” (TC 1.290-292) She doesn’t like being stared at and admired as an object, preferring to stand on her own and be left alone. That is why she looks away, because she is making it clear that she is not looking for any partners. Her stance has a double meaning: she is conspicuous to everyone because of her beauty and her wits, but she does not want to be stared at or be treated like she stands out.

Later when Pandarus goes to her house unannounced, and he asks her to tell him what the book she is reading is about, she tells him that “youre maistress is nat here” (TC 2.98). With this she is reminding Pandarus that she does not answer to him, but that she is the master of the house, with an important status as a widow. Because of this, other families send their daughters to be educated by her, which is why she reads the story of Thebes with them. Reading aloud was common in Chaucer’s time and this activity taught young maids literacy. She reacts with apprehension at Pandarus’ suggestion to trade her independence. telling him that he:

Been so wilde, it seemeth as ye rave.

It satte me wel bet ay in a cave

To bidde and rede on holy saintes lives.

Lat Maidens gon to daunce, and yonge wives.

(TC 2.116-119)

The metaphor of a cave is used for security, which Crisyede has in her independence and her current arrangement. It contrasts with her description of Pandarus as wild and raving: she thinks that if she leaves her independence, her life will become more uncertain, and she won’t feel as confident. It will be like being in the wild. This is especially because the Greeks are besieging Troy. Pandarus, through talking loudly and excitedly, and by making this suggestion, has disrupted Criseyde’s quiet peace. In her peace, she dedicates herself to intellectual pursuits, like reading the tale of Thebes. She is no longer a maiden or young wife, so fun activities like dancing are not for her. Pandarus tells Criseyde that Troilus is in love with her and threatens both of their deaths if she refuses him (TC 2.316-329). Criseyde reacts strongly with lamentations, once again showing her fear of the strange world outside of her own independent home. She also feels betrayed by Pandarus, as she had trusted him with his duty to guard her status, but he is forcing her to love and threatening death otherwise. If this is what her trusted Pandarus does to her, she fears what strangers will do to her (TC 2.408-427). However, she ends up relenting, reasoning that she may prefer not to make love to another man, but she would rather do that than be responsible for the death of her uncle (TC 2.470). She will do it because she is an honorable woman. She has thought this through, showing her deliberative personality.

But Criseyde later grows to love Troilus because of his honor and total devotion to her. It is not an instant love, but rather a process as Chaucer tells us when he says that “his manhood and his pine / Made love withinne hir herte for to mine” (TC 2.676-677). It begins when she sees Troilus riding back to Troy. She is impressed with his status, his wit, his shape, and his gentleness (TC 2.661-662). She deliberates on what to do, reasoning that although she would not yet

Graunte him love, yet for his worthinesse

It were honour with play and with gladnesse

In honestee with swich a lord to dele,

For myn estat, and also for his hele.

                                                                        (TC 2.704-707)

She already sees that Troilus is worthy and honest, and that is important to her. But she wants it to be worth her while to leave behind her status as a widow. The word “play” shows that she is willing to try it out with Troilus, but nothing is guaranteed yet. In her love she does not want to be told what to do: “Shall noon housbonde sayn to me ‘Check-mat!’ / For either they been ful of jalousie, Or maisterful, or loven novelrye” (TC 2.754-756). Ironically, all of these are accusations that were often made against women in medieval poetry. But Criseyde turns them back at men. She fears that men may be jealous of her, or she may lose her independence. She also fears that eventually her lover may be tired of her and leave her. She does not know whether these are attributes of true love or not, and it once again shows her deliberating personality that she is musing on these things.

Criseyde exchanges letters with Troilus and starts to love him. She is later invited by Pandarus to a dinner at the house of Deiphebus, Troilus’ brother, under a ruse. She accompanies Pandarus into Troilus’ room, believing that Helen is there. But she comes across only Troilus, who stands up before her and beseeches her: “Mercy, Mercy, sweetheart” (TC 3.98). Although it takes Criseyde a while to know what Troilus wants, Pandarus and Troilus explain that he wants to serve her in love. She accepts Troilus, but warns him that, although he is the king’s son, He

shall namore han sovereinetee

Of me in love than right in that case is;

N’I nil forbere, if that ye doon amis,

To wratthe you; and whil that ye me serve,

Cherishen you right after ye deserve

                                                        (TC 3. 171-175)

Criseyde has been moved by Troilus: she sees that he is willing to serve her, rather than be served which was her earlier suspicion. Accepting Troilus will be a gain for her. But she reminds him of the obligations and warns that her response will depend on what he does: if he fails her, she will be angry with him, but she will cherish him as long as he serves. In return, Criseyde promises, “If I be she that may you do gladnesse, / For every wo ye shal recovere a blisse” (TC 3.180-181). It is a mutual contract: she is willing to give Troilus happiness in return for his service. Troilus doesn’t have all the obligations either. Each one of them is one half of one heart, and all their worries disappear when they are together. Chaucer is saying that courtly love is not supposed to be about the woman serving the man, but that it comes for obligations for both spouses, which will reward them both with benefits.

Troilus and Criseyde only see each other sparingly and briefly at first. But Pandarus arranges a meeting at his house for them to fully consummate their love. During the meeting, Pandarus’ lies about Criseyde’s cheating cause Troilus to faint. But Criseyde forgives Troilus and wakes him up: this, along with Troilus’ swoon, represents a new beginning in the relationship despite Pandarus’ manipulation. She in turn asks for Troilus’ forgiveness and gets it. They happily make love. Chaucer compares Criseyde to a nightingale

That stinteth first whan she biginneth singe,

Whan that she heereth any herdsman’s hail,

Or in the hegges any wight stiringe,

And after siker doth her vois out ringe.

(TC 3.1234-1237)

Criseyde at first feared what would happen to her and what people would think of her if she opened up to Troilus, like the nightingale was afraid to sing. Her heart was closed. But now her fears have gone away, and she opened her heart like the nightingale singing clearly. Like the nightingale’s melodious tune, Criseyde’s beauty and honest character bring pleasure to Troilus, who in return provides her the same thing. Criseyde gives Troilus “a brooch, gold and azure / In which a rubye set was lik an herte” (TC 3.1370-1371). This symbolizes Criseyde giving her heart and her love to Troilus. He had been the one who loved her first, and she responded, which is why she is the one giving him the brooch. Criseyde is a moral authority: her love is improving Troilus as a person: “Pride, Ire, Envy and Avarice / He gan to flee, and everich other vice” (TC 3.1805-1806). Criseyde also had to give up her pride and fear. Now Troilus and Criseyde are one and are happy in love.

But politics and deceit break up Troilus and Criseyde. Calchas suggests a prisoner exchange, remarking that Troy is doomed. He wants Criseyde back: in return, Troy will receive Antenor. Hector points out that the exchange is wrong since Criseyde is not a prisoner and he does not want to use women as bargaining chips (TC 4.176-182). But despite his protests, the Trojan parliament agrees to the exchange. Chaucer voices his opinion

That litel witen folk what is to yerne,

That they ne finde in her desir offence.

For cloude of errour let hem to discerne

What best is, and lo, here ensample as yerne

(TC 4.198-201)

Chaucer was not too fond of parliaments and assemblies and how they made their choices. He felt that they did not know the right choice and that they were blinded by desire and clouds of error. Chaucer writing that the parliament’s choice breaks up Troilus and Criseyde can be seen as a critique of the tyranny of the majority:  how the schemes and machinations of parliaments can ruin good things and harm innocent people. Troilus and Criseyde were not consulted on what they felt about this. The input of Hector, the best of the Trojans, was also ignored.

When Criseyde hears this, she cannot believe it. She goes to her room in despair. Later Troilus goes to see Criseyde, and they express quiet sorrow, once again showing their connection (TC 4.1128-1141). She asks for mercy and help from Troilus before swooning. Troilus believes she is dead and is about to commit suicide (TC 4.1163-1211). Chaucer may have intended this as a test for Criseyde’s will to survive. It is also a test for Troilus. Criseyde is likely at the brink of death as suggested by her spirit being at the point of passing, along with her pale and green hue (TC 4.1153-1154). But Criseyde wakes up and puts the situation to rest by saying “But ho, for we han right ynough of this!” and says they should go to bed (TC 4.1242-1243). Criseyde again shows that she is always a survivor before anything else. She could have died, and was about to, but woke up at the right moment. She promises to return within a week or two, later revising it to 10 days. Criseyde swears to the gods, the land, and the fates that she will come back, or she will suffer eternal torment (TC 4.1534-1554). She also points out that if they fled their life and reputation would be ruined: as Troilus would be seen as a coward and Criseyde as a loose woman (TC 4.1570-1582). She promises constancy by Cynthia, the moon (TC 4.1606). After this Troilus leaves, unable to utter a word (TC 4.1699-1701). Criseyde is handed over to the Greeks the next morning.

The Greek hero Diomede tries to tempt Criseyde, telling her that her father gave Antenor for her since he knew no one in Troy would survive (TC 5.904-909). He goads Criseyde to let go of Troy and tells her that a Greek would serve her better than a Trojan ever could (TC 5.912-921). Criseyde accepts his offer to speak again in the next morning (TC 5.949-950). As usual, she tries to play for time. She concedes that the Greeks are “of high condicioun” (TC 5.967). Criseyde lies to protect herself and Troilus. She still rejects Diomede’s love, but she is pretending that she has not loved anyone other than her late husband (TC 5.975-978). Criseyde makes a limited counterproposal to Diomede. She will not love him, but also does not reject him: it is an open question (TC 5.1002-1004). But she had earlier made a similar offer to Troilus, requiring that he earn her, so she has already made concessions to Diomede that cannot be reversed.

Indeed, the next morning, Diomede spoke so well and cunningly for himself, and as a result, Criseyde was relieved “of the grete of al hir paine” (TC 5.1036). She gave Diomede “a brooch – and that was litel neede- That Troilus was” (TC 5.1040-1041). The brooch that Troilus gave her represented their love: as long as she still had it, they would still be together. But now, stirred by Diomede’s machinations, she has given him her brooch., meaning that she has officially ended the love between her and Troilus. There is no going back now for Criseyde. But Chaucer makes sure to defend her. He says “that she was allone and hadde neede /Of frendes help” (TC 5.1026-1027). This is how she began to warm up to Diomede: because he was the only one there for her at that time. He also says that

There made never woman more wo

Than she, when that she falsed Troilus.

She saide, “Allas, for now is clene ago

My name of trouthe in love for evermo,

For I have falsed oon the gentilese

That ever was, and oon the worthieste.”

                                                                        (TC 5.1052-1057)

She knows what she has done and that her reputation will be ruined. Chaucer makes it clear that it was not easy for Diomede to win Criseyde and takes pity on her because she felt sorry for her infidelity towards Troilus (TC 5.1086-1099). Criseyde later sends Troilus a letter. She is cutting her losses since her protector Hector is dead. She tells him that “you neither sende ich herte may nor hele” (TC 5.1596). There is no hope for their relationship, Criseyde cannot provide Troilus any more bliss or healing. She also accuses him of only caring for his own indulgence and happiness:

I have eek understonde

How ye ne do but holden me in honed;

But now no fors -I can nat in you gesse

But alle trouthe and alle gentilesse.

                                                        (TC 5.1614-1617)

Notably, Criseyde has heard this from rumors, but she still she cannot decide what is true. She may also be trying to remove the guilt and shame from herself by attempting to project it to Troilus. She essentially tells him to expect no more letters from her (TC 5.1627). This is the end of Criseyde’s story. She has tragically been cut off from Troilus.

Criseyde in the beginning of the story is a mature and independent woman who is using her wits to survive. But Troilus’ devotion and honor wins her over and she opens herself up to him.  The relationship continues, but the politics of Troy along with the cunning of Diomede ruin the relationship. Chaucer’s story is one that sticks with many of the tropes of medieval fantasy, but it is also one that reverses them: he makes the major characters much more complicated and develops Criseyde’s feelings and motivations much more. He also brings in Boethius for his story’s philosophy. He fools the reader with their possible double deaths during the downturn of the story. Chaucer is also the first writer to use the word “tragedy” in the English language. Other writers of tragedies would be inspired by Chaucer.

Works Cited

Chaucer, Geoffrey. “Troilus and Criseyde.” The Norton Chaucer. Edited by David Lawton et al., Norton, 2019. 749-944.