Perhaps no other time in history is more misunderstood and underappreciated than the Middle Ages. In popular culture, the Middle Ages is depicted as a backward time with constant warfare and plagues where barely any great inventions were produced. On the other hand, the classical antiquity period of Ancient Greece and Rome is seen as an enlightened period and more advanced than the Middle Ages, with plenty of advances in science, architecture, and philosophy. However, the notion that the Middle Ages was backward is wrong. Although some of the myths about the period are true, the Middle Ages was actually a great and important time for Western civilization. It saw many advancements from antiquity, and we owe a lot to them.

In order to prove this, we first begin with a practical syllogism to show that the Catholic Church brought general unity and stability to Europe, allowing the continent to better advance culturally and technologically in the Middle Ages. Then we do a disjunctive syllogism argument that education improved in the Middle Ages with the establishment of universities. Next, we use casual reasoning to show that the pursuit of learning in the Middle Ages created the first universities. We then do a chain argument to show that Medieval Europe’s advanced farming technology led to the growth and thriving of towns and cities. We then do a casual reasoning argument to show that the suppression of slavery by Christianity led to the dying out of the practice. Finally, we do a modus ponens to argue that the Middle Ages was a great and important time period because it produced great architecture, art and philosophy.

A civilization is better able to advance when its area is unified and stable. The Catholic Church brought general unity and stability to Europe, redefining the relationship between church and state. Therefore, Europe was better able to advance technologically. Education in a civilization is important, as it creates educated minds who will inherit it. Either education improves from a previous civilization or it doesn’t. Universities were first formed in the Middle Ages, and they produced alumni who helped advance fields such as science, philosophy and theology. Therefore, education improved in the Middle Ages. The pursuit of higher learning in Medieval Europe coincided with the creation of universities. Therefore, the pursuit of higher learning in Medieval Europe created the first universities. Farming technology is also important for a civilization, as it grows and feeds the population, sustaining the towns and cities. If a civilization has superior farming technology, then it follows that their population grows. If their population grows, then towns and cities will thrive with commerce and activity. Therefore, Medieval Europe’s advanced farming technology led to the thriving of towns and cities. Although many advanced civilizations have slavery, less slavery means that a civilization becomes more advanced morally. The suppression of slavery by the Catholic Church coincided with the dying out of the practice by the High Middle Ages.  Therefore, the suppression of slavery by the Catholic Church helped cause the practice to die out in medieval Europe by the High Middle Ages. A civilization’s architecture, art and philosophy speak to its greatness. If a time period produces great architecture, art and philosophy, then it is a great and important time period. The Middle Ages produced great architecture, art and philosophy. Therefore, it was a great and important time period.

We must first define what a great time for a civilization is. A great time for a civilization would be one where significant advances are made in technology and knowledge, and one in which the technology is on par with, and even surpasses, other civilizations in the same time period. A time like this may also be marked by general stability and peace, and even unity among the peoples of a continent if they share a similar culture. The quality of life for the average person would also improve over the past. The advancements that this civilization makes during the time period contribute very much to the modern world.

A civilization is better able to advance when its area is unified and stable. The Catholic Church brought general unity and stability to Medieval Europe, redefining the relationship between church and state. Thus, Europe was better able to advance technologically. This argument is a practical syllogism, since it is a value judgement and I am suggesting that a unified and stable area is “better” able to advance. I require justification in order to prove it. (Falikowski 117). This makes the first claim normative. Two empirical claims are also connected to the argument, that the Catholic Church unified Europe and that it made the continent better able to advance technologically. These claims deal with facts, and verification is what proves them right (Falikowski 54). It is historically true that the Catholic Church unified and stabilized Europe during the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church replaced the Roman Empire as the most powerful institution in the continent. It provided stability to Western Europe and appealed to people of all social classes. It took over basic functions of government, such as centralized authority, bureaucracy, the judicial system and canon laws. All the secular kings of Western Europe answered to the Catholic Church (HWUFSD). Apart from unifying and stabilizing Europe, the Church also had schools for the elite, and many scientists and philosophers were priests. The claims are linked, meaning that they wouldn’t make sense if they were taken separately. If I didn’t give enough proof to support my claims, then the argument wouldn’t be sufficient. Also, if I only explained how the Church helped stabilize Europe, without trying to prove or justify anything, then it wouldn’t be an argument, but an explanation. The argument is sound because the form of the argument is proper, and the empirical claims are true.

Education is important for a civilization, as it creates educated minds who will inherit it. Either education improves from a previous civilization or it doesn’t. Universities were first formed in the Middle Ages, and they produced alumni who helped advance fields such as science, philosophy and theology. Therefore, education improved in the Middle Ages. This argument is a disjunctive exclusive syllogism, since I am affirming one of the disjuncts, which means I am excluding the other. I can only choose one of them (Falikowski 118). The conclusion that I made was that education improved in the Middle Ages. Both the claims that I made are empirical, because they are factual in nature. They are verified with proof. Universities in their present form appeared in the Middle Ages for the first time in human history. Although there had been previous educational institutions such as the schools of Ancient Greece, they were not equivalent to the new concept of a university. You could go and study in Bologna, Paris, and Oxford under the masters of such prestigious subjects as philosophy, theology, science, law and medicine. If you got a degree in these subjects, they would hold good anywhere in Europe. Knowledge from ancient Greece and Rome was very important curriculum in these universities. For example, the University of Bologna started as a secular law school to study the newly rediscovered Corpus Juris Civilis from the Roman Emperor Justinian. Graduates from the universities worked in secular and Church administrative roles, developing the legal and administrative institutions of Europe and strengthening the state’s capacity to tax and govern (Cantoni and Yuchtman). Some of the alumni of these universities were the philosopher and priest St. Thomas Aquinas and the philosopher/biologist Albert the Great. They all wrote commentaries on pagan philosophers such as Aristotle that excluded religious ideas and improved upon their knowledge (Hannam). This argument is in valid form, because the claims are in proper order. First, I present an either/or choice. Then I affirm one of the choices, which then becomes my conclusion. The argument is also sound, since the claims that I made in it are true. The improper form of an argument like this would be if both disjuncts could be true at the same time, but I excluded one of them (Falikowski 122). For example: Either I’m in Medieval Europe or Medieval Italy. I’m in Medieval Italy. Therefore, I’m not in Medieval Europe. It doesn’t make sense, since Italy is in Europe. Plus, it can be both at the same time.

The pursuit of higher learning in Medieval Europe coincided with the creation of universities. Therefore, the pursuit of higher learning in Medieval Europe created the first universities. This argument is a causal argument, because I am implying that something is the cause of something else because it preceded it (Falikowski 144). The cause of universities being created in Medieval Europe was the pursuit of higher learning among nobles. The two claims that I used are empirical, because they deal with facts and what was the case in the past. These claims have to be verified (Falikowski 54). Guilds, or groups of students and scholars created universities in Medieval Europe in order to pursue higher learning. They found teachers in the bigger towns and cities of Europe and hired them to teach. This is how the first university in Bologna was founded, as a corporation of students, or a universitas scholarium. On the other hand, Paris and Oxford were corporations of masters, or universitas magistrorum (Hannam). Thus, the university was born. This argument is strong because the proof and sources supporting it are true. This makes the argument cogent. This argument is inductive because even though it is very strong, the conclusion is not guaranteed. There were other reasons for the creation of universities in Medieval Europe, such as protection from political bullying. Foreign students’ and faculty’s legal rights were poorly defined and left open to expropriation. The protection of university students were choices made by secular and church lords, such as Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa with his Authentica Habita of 1155 (Cantoni and Yuchtman). Another reason was because once cathedral schools moved beyond just training the clergy, they needed to hold on to respected teachers in order to attract other students (Hannam). A faulty form of this argument would be if I didn’t have enough evidence that X caused Y. For example, if I said that the Crusades caused the creation of universities. This is false, and there is no evidence for it. Therefore, there is no reason for anyone to accept this argument.

Farming technology is also important for a civilization, as it grows and feeds the population, sustaining the towns and cities. If a civilization has superior farming technology, then it follows that their population grows. If their population grows, then towns and cities thrive with commerce and activity. Therefore, Medieval Europe’s superior farming technology led to the thriving of its towns and cities. This is a chain argument, because all three of the claims are linked together, and the first claim is connected to the last one.  Therefore, if the first claim is true then the third one is also true. The argument also begins with hypothetical “if-then” statements (Falikowski 119). The common clause in the chain argument is the statement that “the population grows”. It links the first and last premises together. Because of Medieval Europe’s superior farming technology, the population grew, and thus towns and cities and towns began to thrive with commerce and activity. The first claim is conceptual, because I have to define what “superior farming technology” is.  Superior farming technology allows more crops to be grown and feeds more people. Medieval Europe’s increased agricultural production allowed the expansion of cultivated land and enabled some of the population to become non-agricultural workers, creating a division of labor and more economic and cultural diversity. Chief agricultural inventions included the use of the draft horse, the water mill and the windmill. The draft horse, with iron horseshoes, could plow the thick soils of northern Europe faster than the traditional ox. The water mills could grind grain into flour near the rivers in Western Europe. When water was not available, windmills were used instead. Due to the advances in agriculture, Europe’s population grew from 38.5 million people to 73.5 million between 1000 and 1340. This caused urban growth as people from the countryside flocked to the towns and cities. Guilds appeared in the towns and cities, and a market economy emerged (Peters, 32). The other two claims in the argument are empirical, because they deal with facts which are verified. The form of this argument is valid, and the claims are true. This makes the argument sound. The claims supporting the argument are also positively relevant, lending support to the conclusion.

Although many advanced civilizations have slavery, less slavery means that a civilization becomes more advanced morally. The suppression of slavery by Christianity coincided with the dying out of the practice in medieval Europe by the High Middle Ages. Therefore, the suppression of slavery by Christianity helped cause the practice to die out in Medieval Europe by the High Middle Ages. This is causal reasoning, since I am asserting that one thing was the cause of another. I am asserting that because the Catholic Church suppressed slavery in Medieval Europe, slavery died out in the continent. This is an inductive argument, because although the conclusion is very likely, it is not guaranteed. It is only probable. There were other causes for the suppression of slavery in Medieval Europe, such as the economy not being slave based, but this argument only covers one of them. However, the evidence supporting this argument is true, which makes it very strong. Christianity suppressed slavery of Christians during the High Middle Ages. Medieval canon lawyers declared that slavery was contrary to the spirit of Christianity, and when nearly all of Europe had been Christianized in the 11^th century, the laws of slavery in civil law codes became invalid. Due to this, the status of slaves was slowly elevated to a serf. Serfs were owned by a lord and had to work on farms for him. While they were not completely free, serfs had more rights than slaves and were able to move around more. There were still slaves, but they were non-Christian, and they had to be treated humanely and freed if they converted to Christianity (Slavery in Medieval Europe). All this makes the argument sound. A fallacy of this argument would be if I oversimplified the cause, asserting that the Church was the only reason that slavery was uncommon in Medieval Europe without acknowledging the other reasons. Another fallacy would be if I took something unrelated to be the cause of the lack of slavery in Medieval Europe. An example would be if I asserted that Europeans being white was the cause of slavery dying out there. The skin color of people has no effect on whether their society has slavery or not.

A civilization’s architecture, art and philosophy speak to its greatness. If a time period produces great architecture, art and philosophy, then it is a great and important time period. The Middle Ages saw great architecture, art and philosophy. Therefore, it was an important and great time period. This is a modus ponens, because there is an antecedent and a consequent, and if the antecedent is true, then the consequent is also true. “If a time period produces great architecture, art and philosophy” is the antecedent, while “then it is a great and important time period” is the consequent. For the consequent to be true, I have to affirm the antecedent (Falikowski 114). The claims in this argument are mixed, because it is both empirical and conceptual. The empirical part of the claim is that a time period “is” great and important if it produces great architecture, art and philosophy. This is factual and deals with facts. However, the “great and important” part of the argument is conceptual, because it must be defined. The argument itself defines this, and it has also been defined in the beginning of the essay, so there is no need to define it here. This argument is in valid form, because the antecedent and consequent are in order, and I am affirming the antecedent. The claim in this argument is true as well. The Middle Ages did produce great works of architecture, from the early Christian basilicas of Rome, to the Byzantine structures of Constantinople, to the Carolingian and Ottonian architecture of northern Europe, to the Romanesque Churches of southern France and Spain, the Gothic cathedrals of northern France, and finally the Flamboyant churches of the 15^th century (Medieval Architecture: A Monograph). Great art was also produced during this period, whether it be in novels such as Dante’s Divine Comedy and Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, in paintings such as those of Giotto, or the illuminators of colorful medieval manuscripts (Esolen). Advances in philosophy were also made by great philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Albert the Great. Albert the Great came into contact with the works of Aristotle and the Spanish-Arab philosopher Averroes, wrote commentaries on the Bible and saw faith and reason as the two ways to knowledge (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica). Thomas Aquinas, Albert’s student, developed his own conclusions from Aristotelian premises, notably the metaphysics of personality, creation and providence, and systematized Latin theology in his two works: the Summa theologiae and the Summa contra gentiles (Chenu).  All this is sufficient to prove the conclusion, and it is positively relevant to it. A fallacy of the argument would be if the antecedent was denied, because then the consequent would be denied: “Medieval Europe did not produce great architecture, art and philosophy. Therefore, it was not a great and important time period”. It would also be false, because as it has been said, Medieval Europe did have advances in architecture, art and philosophy.

In conclusion, the Middle Ages were a great and important time for Western civilization. Europe was unified and stable because of the Catholic Church during the period, allowing it to better advance. Education was improved with the creation of the first universities, which were created because of the pursuit of learning among intellectuals. Europe’s superior farming technology allowed the population to grow and sustain itself, leading to the towns and cities thriving. The Catholic Church’s suppression of slavery in the Middle Ages led to the practice mostly dying out in Europe. Finally, Medieval Europe produced great architecture, art and philosophy.

 

Bibliography

Cantoni, Davide and Noam Yuchtman. How universities helped transform the medieval world. Vox.org. 21 May 2012. Accessed 31 March 2018.

Chenu, Marie-Dominique. St. Thomas Aquinas. Encyclopedia Britannica. 28 February 2018. Biography. Accessed 1 April 2018.

Peters, Edward et al. History of Europe – Growth and Innovation. Encyclopedia Britannica 19 July 2016. Book. 1 April 2018.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. St. Albertus Magnus. 16 March 2017. Encyclopedia Britannica. Biography. 1 April 2018.

Esolen, Anthony. How Dark Were the Dark Ages? PragerU. 26 January 2015. Video. 1 April 2018.

Falikowski, Anthony. Rational Thinking: Elements, Skills & Applications. Oakville: Mosaic Press, 2016. Book.

Hannam, James. Medieval Science and Philosophy. 2007. Website. Accessed 31 March 2018.

HWUFSD. The Church and the Middle Ages. 20 October 2011. PowerPoint Presentation.

Medieval Architecture: A Monograph. n.d. Columbia University. Website. Accessed 31 March 2018.

Slavery in Medieval Europe. n.d. Academic.com. Website. Accessed 1 April 2018.

 

Appendix 1

(1) A civilization is better able to advance when its area is unified and stable. (2) The Catholic Church brought general unity and stability to Europe, redefining the relationship between church and state. (3) Therefore, Europe was better able to advance technologically. Education is important for a civilization, as it creates educated minds who will inherit it. (4) Either education improves from a previous civilization or it doesn’t. (5) Universities were first formed in the Middle Ages, and they produced alumni who helped advance fields such as science, philosophy and theology. (6) Therefore, education improved in the Middle Ages. (7) The pursuit of higher learning in Medieval Europe coincided with the creation of universities. (8) Therefore, the pursuit of higher learning in Medieval Europe created the first universities. Farming technology is also important for a civilization, as it grows the population along with the towns and cities. (9) If a civilization has superior farming technology, then it follows that their population grows. (10) If their population grows, then towns and cities will thrive with commerce and activity. (11) Therefore, Medieval Europe’s advanced farming technology led to the thriving of towns and cities. Although many advanced civilizations have slavery, less slavery means that a civilization becomes more advanced morally. (12) The suppression of slavery by Christianity coincided with the dying out of the practice by the High Middle Ages.  (13) Therefore, the suppression of slavery by Christianity helped cause the practice to die out in medieval Europe by the High Middle Ages. A civilization’s architecture, art and philosophy speak to its greatness. (14) If a time period produces great architecture, art and philosophy, then it is a great and important time period. (15) The Middle Ages produced great architecture, art and philosophy. (16) Therefore, it was a great and important time period.

 

 

Appendix 2

1 A civilization is better able to advance when its area is unified and stable

2 The Catholic Church brought general unity and stability to Europe, redefining the relationship between church and state

IC [3] Therefore, Europe was better able to advance technologically (1+2)

 

4 Either education improves from a previous civilization or it doesn’t

5 Universities were first formed in the Middle Ages, and they produced alumni who helped advance fields such as science, philosophy and theology

IC [6] Therefore, education improved in the Middle Ages (4+5)

 

7 The pursuit of learning in Medieval Europe coincided with the creation of universities

IC [8] Therefore, the pursuit of learning in Medieval Europe created the first universities

 

 

9 If a civilization has superior farming technology, then it follows that their population grows

10 If their population grows, then towns and cities will thrive with commerce and activity

IC [11] Therefore, Medieval Europe’s advanced farming technology led to the thriving of towns and cities

 

 

12 The suppression of slavery by Christianity coincided with the dying out of the practice by the High Middle Ages

IC [13] Therefore, the suppression of slavery by Christianity helped cause the practice to die out by the High Middle Ages

 

 

14 If a time period produces great architecture, art and philosophy, then it is a great and important time period

 

15 The Middle Ages produced great architecture, art and philosophy

MC [16] Therefore, it was a great and important time period